Rules In English

موضوع: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:09 am

lets start quickly

we will know here
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
*Simple present الحاضر البسيط
*present continues الحاضر المستمر
*Past simple الماضي البسيط
*الماضي المستمر
*الحاضر التام
*الحاضر التام المستمر
*الجمل الزمنيّة المتصدّرة للمستقبل
*المستقبل المستمر
* المستقبل التام
*وصل الجمل
*صيغة الاحتمال
*Preferences التفضيل

Commas After Introductions

[color=#800080]Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences
Using Commas

Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives

Using Pronouns Clearly

[color:08d7=#800080:08d7]Pronoun Case

Director/Sanzio

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:10 am

Simple present الحاضر البسيط

1-عمل اعتيادي في الزمن الحاضر:
1-My classes begin at 9 o`clock.
2- He eats a sandwich for lunch
3-I study for two hours everyday.
4-Whenever I see him, I say “hello”.
2-حقيقة عامّة
1-Most animals kill only for food.
2-The Earth is round.
3-Water consists of Hydrogen and Oxygen
ملاحظة:ظروف التكرار
Usually,always,often,sometimes and never.تأتي عادة مع الحاضر البسيط وقبل الفعل الرئيسي
ومن دلالاته أيضاَ العبارات الظرفيّة في نهاية الجملة everyday

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:11 am

الحاضر المستمر present continues

1-عمل حدث في الزمن الحاضر ولا يزال مستمرّاَ حتّى وقت الكلام
1-He is sleeping right now
2-I need an umbrella because it is raining
أعمال ذات طبيعة عامّة ومستمرّة وليس بالضرورة أنّها تحدث الآن مع ظروف مثل -2
This week, this afternoon, this year and this semester
1-She is writing a story this year.
Notice ملاحظة:today,now,at present and at the moment دائماَ يأتي معها حاضر مستمر
ملاحظة مهمّة:بعض الأفعال لا تأتي مع الاستمرار حتّى لو وجدت
Today now
مثل:
1-أفعال ذهنيّة
Know , realize,understand,recognize,believe,feel,suppose, think ,imagine,remember,forget,want,need,prefer,mean and doubt.
2-أفعال عاطفيّة
Love ,like ,appreciate ,hate ,dislike ,fear ,envy ,mind and care for
3-أفعال الملك
Possess ,have ,own and belong
4-أفعال الحواس
Taste ,smell ,hear ,feel and see
5-أفعال أخرى
Seem ,appear ,consist of ,look (دون حرف جر بعدها)يبدو
Cost ,owe ,weigh ,exist ,contain and include
مثال:
I have one dollar right now.
2-I don’t recognize that man.
3-He needs a pen right now.
4-He knows this grammar.
بعض الأفعال التي ذكرت سابقاَ تأتي مع الاستمرار ولكن لها معنى مختلف
1-I think he is a kind man.(بسيط)
I’m thinking about this grammar. (مستمر)
2-He has a car ..(بسيط)
مع الاستمرار
I am having trouble.
She is having a good time.
She is having fun.
I’m having lunch.
3-It tastes nice.(بسيط)
He is tasting the soup .(مستمر)
4-It smells nice.
He is smelling the flower.
5-I see a batterfly.
He is seeing a patient.
6-He feels good. The cat’s fur feels soft.
He is feeling the cat’s fur.
7-He looks cold.(with out any preposition )
He is looking out the window.
8-He appears to be asleep.
He is appearing on the stage.
9-The piano is heavy; it weighs a lot.
The grocer is weighing the apples.
10-(be)فعل الكون إذا كان بمعنى شخص موجود في مكان أو شخص يكون كذا لا يأتي مع الاستمرار
He is at home .he is a doctor.
أمّا عند وصف حالة راهنة يمكن أن يأتي مع الاستمرار مع صفات مثل
Foolish ,patient ,careful ,kind ,nice ,polite ,impolite ,silly ,careless rude and lazy
He is foolish.هو أحمق
He is being foolish.هو يتصرّف بحماقة

Constantly, always and forever تأتي مع الحاضر البسيط ولكن عند التعبير عن شعور بالغضب تأتي مع الاستمرار وتقع هذه الظروف بين فعل الكون والفعل الرئيسي
1-He always leaves at nine .
He is always leaving his dirty socks on the floor.

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:11 am

الماضي البسيط

1-عمل مضى مع ذكر زمن معيّن (ago, yesterday ,last night ,…..)
I walked to school yesterday.
2-عمل اعتيادي في الزمن الماضي Whenever I saw him .I said “hello”.
3- سرد حوادث متعاقبة في الماضي Yesterday ,I went to school ,then I come back home ,next I visited my friend ,finally I come back to the shop.
4- عند حدوث عملين في الزمن الماضي الذي حدث أولاَ يكون ماضي تام والذي حدث ثانياَ ماضي بسيط إنما نضع الماضي البسيط في طرفي الجملة مع العلم أن العمل بعد when ,every time ,whenever هو الذي حدث أولاَ
1- عمل اعتيادي
Whenever I saw him ,I said “hello”.
2-واضح أي عمل حدث أولاَ
When I dropped my cup ,the coffee spilled on my lap.
3- غير مهتمين أي عمل حدث أولاَ
I stood under a tree when it began to rain.

الماضي المستمر

الماضي من الحاضر المستمر الذي مرّ سابقاَ
وصف حوادث متتالية ومستمرّة في الماضي
I went to the park . the sun was shining ,and we were playing ,but my friend was lying.
3-عمل كان مستمر في الماضي وأثناء حدوثه حدث عمل آخر يكون ماضي بسيط
While I was walking ,I met him.
I was standing under a tree when it began to rain .

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:11 am

الحاضر التام

Have ,has +v3الاستعمال:1-عمل قد انتهى الآن دون ذكر زمن معيّن
I’ve just finished my work .
2-عمل حدث في الزمن الماضي ونفكّر بنتيجته الحاضرة دون ذكر زمن معيّن
I have had this same pair of shoes for tow years.
3-عمل حدث أو لم يحدث في الماضي واستمرّ ليشمل الحاضر دون ذكر زمن معيّن
I have known Rami for ten years .حدث
I have never seen snow.لم يحدث
ملاحظة:
yet ,so far ,up to now دائماَ حاضر تام
ملاحظة:
Yet تأتي في آخر الجملة
الحاضر التام المستمر
Have ,has+been+ing
الاستعمال :لعمل حدث في الماضي واستمر ليشمل فترة يمكن أن تشمل الحاضر ويمكن لا مع عبارات ظرفيّة مثل
All the day
I have been living in Safita for 10 years.
Where is your brother?
He has been working since 10 .

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:12 am

الجمل الزمنيّة المتصدّرة للمستقبل
مع أن كلا الزمنين يحدث في المستقبل إنما نضع الحاضر البسيط بعد
When ,so long as ,as long as ,once ,as soon as ,until ,before and after.
I’ll meet you after I finish my work .
ملاحظة :يمكن أن نستعمل الحاضر المستمر المتصدّر للمستقبل و لا فرق
I’m going to meet you after I finish my work.
ملاحظة:
Hope ,plan ,intend لا تأتي مع المستقبل لأن لها معنى المستقبل
المستقبل المستمر
Will +be +ing اسم الفاعل
1-يستعمل لعمل سوف يكون مستمرّاَ في المستقبل ونتكلّم عنه الآن في نفس اللحظة{يمكن أن يكون مع الجمل الزمنيّة المتصدّرة}
Tomorrow at this time ,I’ll be lying on the beach.
المستقبل التام
Will +have +v.3 اسم المفعول
يستعمل لعمل سوف يكون قد انتهى في المستقبل مع الجمل الزمنيّة المتصدّرة
When you come back ,I’ll have finished my work.
ملاحظة:
By the time + حاضر= مستقبل تام
By 2010 +حاضر =مستقبل تام

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:12 am

وصل الجمل
1-العبارات الظرفيَة
Because ,althoughرغم أنَ though رغم أنَ even though مع أنَ
Because it was hot ,we went swimming.
Although it was cold ,we went swimming.
2-حروف العطف
So لذلك but لكن anyway ,yet مع ذلك still ,but لكن still
It was hot ,so we went swimming.
It was cold ,but we went swimming anyway .
It was cold ,but we still went swimming .
It was cold ,yet we still went swimming.
3-حروف الجر
Because of بسبب in spite of بالرغم من despiteبالرغم من
Because of the hot weather ,we went swimming.
In spite of cold weather ,we went swimming.
Despite the cold weather ,we went swimming.
4-transition النقل
nevertheless مع ذلك nonetheless مع ذلك therefore لذلك howeverمهما يكن
consequentlyنتيجة لذلك
it was cold nevertheless we went swimming.
It was cold nonetheless we went swimming.
It was cold however we went swimming.
It was hot therefore we went swimming.
It was hot consequently we went swimming.

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:12 am

صيغة الاحتمال

افعال الاحتمال

Must إثبات can’t نفي
Can, could
may ,might

صيغة الاحتمال مع كل زمن

1-الحاضر البسيط
فعل احتمال +المصدر

Are they married? Yes, they must be married.

2-الماضي البسيط و الحاضر التام
فعل احتمال+have +v.3اسم المفعول

Were they in a hurry? No, they can’t have been in a hurry.
Has he known? No, he can’t have known.

3-الحاضر المستمر
فعل احتمال+be+ingاسم الفاعل

Are they waiting? Yes, they must be waiting

4-الماضي المستمر
فعل احتمال+have +been +ingاسم الفاعل

Was he driving carefully? Yes, he must have been driving carefully

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:13 am

Preferences التفضيل
1-prefer+اسم أو اسم فاعل +to+اسم أو اسم فاعل
I prefer oranges to apples.
I prefer eating oranges to drinking pop.
2-I like+اسم أو اسم فاعل +better than+اسم أو اسم فاعل
I like oranges better than apples.
I like eating oranges better than drinking pop.
3-would rather +فعل +than+فعل
I would rather eat oranges than drink pop.
ملاحظة:إذا كان الفعل مكرر نحذف الفعل بعد
Than
I would rather eat oranges than apples.
عند السؤال
Would you rather……………..?

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:13 am

[center]Commas After Introductions

Introductory Clauses
Introductory clauses are dependent clauses that provide background information or "set the stage" for the main part of the sentence, the independent clause. For example:

*If they want to win, athletes must exercise every day. (introductory dependent clause, main clause)
*Because he kept barking insistently, we threw the ball for Smokey. (introductory dependent clause, main clause)
Clue: Introductory clauses start with adverbs like after, although, as, because, before, if, since, though, until, when, etc.

Introductory Phrases
Introductory phrases also set the stage for the main action of the sentence, but they are not complete clauses. Phrases don't have both a subject and a verb that are separate from the subject and verb in the main clause of the sentence. Common introductory phrases include prepositional phrases, appositive phrases, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and absolute phrases.

*To stay in shape for competition, athletes must exercise every day. (introductory infinitive phrase, main clause)
Barking insistently, Smokey got us to throw his ball for him. (introductory participial phrase, main clause)
*A popular and well respected mayor, Bailey was the clear favorite in the campaign for governor. (introductory appositive phrase, main clause)
The wind blowing violently, the townspeople began to seek shelter. (introductory absolute phrase, main clause)
*After the adjustment for inflation, real wages have decreased while corporate profits have grown. (introductory prepositional phrases, main clause)
Introductory Words
Introductory words like however, still, furthermore, and meanwhile create continuity from one sentence to the next.

*The coaches reviewed the game strategy. Meanwhile, the athletes trained on the Nautilus equipment.
*Most of the evidence seemed convincing. Still, the credibility of some witnesses was in question.
When to Use a Comma
Introductory elements often require a comma, but not always. Use a comma in the following cases:

*after an introductory clause. (Does the introductory element have a subject and verb of its own?)
*after a long introductory prepositional phrase or more than one introductory prepositional phrase. (Are there more than five words before the main clause?)
*after introductory verbal phrases, some appositive phrases, or absolute phrases.
*if there is a distinct pause. (When you read the sentence aloud, do you find your voice pausing a moment after the introductory element?)
*to avoid confusion. (Might a reader have to read the sentence more than once to make sense of it?)
When not to Use a Comma
Some introductory elements don't require a comma, and sometimes the subject of a sentence looks like an introductory element but isn't. Do not use a comma in the following cases:

*after a brief prepositional phrase. (Is it a single phrase of less than five words?)
*after a restrictive (essential) appositive phrase. (See our document on appositives.)
*to separate the subject from the predicate. (See below.)
Each of the following sentences may look like it requires a comma after the opening segment (marked with an x), but the opening segment is really the subject. It's sometimes easy to confuse gerund- or infinitive-phrase subjects like the following with nonessential introductory phrases, so be careful.

*Preparing and submitting his report to the committee for evaluation and possible publication[x] was one of the most difficult tasks Bill had ever attempted.
*To start a new business without doing market research and long-term planning in advance[x] would be foolish.
*Extracting the most profit for the least expenditure on labor and materials[x] is the primary goal of a capitalist

[/center]

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:13 am

Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences

A group of words containing a subject and a verb and expressing a complete thought is called a sentence or an independent clause. Sometimes, an independent clause stands alone as a sentence, and sometimes two independent clauses are linked together into what is called a compound sentence. Depending on the circumstances, one of two different punctuation marks can be used between the independent clauses in a compound sentence: a comma or a semicolon. The choice is yours.

Comma (,)
Use a comma after the first independent clause when you link two independent clauses with one of the following coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. For example:

I am going home, and I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon, but we managed to have our picnic anyway.

They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark, so they decided to camp for the night.

Semicolon ( ; )
Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words. For example:

I am going home; I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic anyway.

They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to camp for the night.

You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc. For example:

I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to have our picnic anyway.

They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore, they decided to camp for the night.

For more information about compound sentence patterns, see the Purdue OWL handout on Sentence Punctuation Patterns

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:14 am

Using Commas

The comma is a valuable, useful punctuation device because it separates the structural elements of sentences into manageable segments. The rules provided here are those found in traditional handbooks; however, in certain rhetorical contexts and for specific purposes, these rules may be broken.

1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.
Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.

a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.

However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).

1. She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
3. She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct: extreme contrast)

b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).

Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you'd better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.

c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.

Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you may not be satisfied with the results.

3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.

Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:

If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense?
Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?
If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?
If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:

Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.

That clauses after nouns:

The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.
The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.
That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:

She believes that she will be able to earn an A.
He is dreaming that he can fly.
I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.
They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.
Examples of other essential elements (no commas):

Students who cheat only harm themselves.
The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
The candidate who had the least money lost the election.
Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):

Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.
The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow.
Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.
She was, however, too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.

The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.
6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.

Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:

Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?
If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:

He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)
They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)
She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate)
Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)
7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.

He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.
You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?
The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.
8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)

1. Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)
2a. Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (incorrect: Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)
2b. Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)
2c. Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.

Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.
July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life.
Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.
(When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: "The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")

10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.

John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."
"I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."
In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"
11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.

To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.
Comma Abuse
Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses.

12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.

An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult. (incorrect)
The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions. (incorrect)
13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.

We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study. (incorrect)
I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car. (incorrect)
14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.

The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married. (incorrect: compound subject)
Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me. (incorrect: compound object)

15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).

1. She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
3. She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct: extreme contrast)

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:14 am

Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives

In this handout, the three types of verbals are discussed: gerunds, participles, and infinitives.

Gerunds and participles are also compared and contrasted in a separate section of this handout because they can both end in -ing but have different functions in a sentence.

Finally, since they can both function as nouns in a sentence despite their different forms, gerunds and infinitives are compared and contrasted in the last section below.

Throughout this document, occasional example sentences with wording that might be considered nonstandard, ambiguous, or at least peculiar in formal writing are marked with an asterisk (*).

Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.

Gerund as subject:

Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
Gerund as direct object:

They do not appreciate my singing.
They do not appreciate my assistance.
Gerund as subject complement:

My cat's favorite activity is sleeping.
My cat's favorite food is salmon.
Gerund as object of preposition:

The police arrested him for speeding.
The police arrested him for criminal activity.
A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:

Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Finding (gerund)
a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)

I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.
The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate.
my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund)
offering (gerund)
you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents.
The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement.
lying to (gerund)
his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.
The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for.
faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Being (gerund)
the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)

Punctuation
A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.

Points to remember:
1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.
2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:15 am

Using Pronouns Clearly

Using Pronouns Clearly
Because a pronoun REFERS BACK to a noun or TAKES THE PLACE OF that noun, you have to use the correct pronoun so that your reader clearly understands which noun your pronoun is referring to.

Therefore, pronouns should:

1. AGREE in NUMBER
If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.

If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.

(NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.)

REMEMBER: The words EVERYBODY, ANYBODY, ANYONE, EACH, NEITHER, NOBODY, SOMEONE, A PERSON, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.

Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)

Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)

NOTE: Many people find the construction "his or her" wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural noun as your antecedent so that you can use "they" as your pronoun, it may be wise to do so. If you do use a singular noun and the context makes the gender clear, then it is permissible to use just "his" or "her" rather than "his or her." See our handout on Non-sexist Language for more information.

2. AGREE in PERSON
If you are writing in the "first person" ( I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the "second person" ( you) or "third person" (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the "second person," don't switch to "first" or "third."

When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.

(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)

3. REFER CLEARLY to a specific noun.
Don't be vague or ambiguous.

NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?)

NOT: I don't think they should show violence on TV. (Who are "they"?)

NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)

NOT: George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his life's work. (What word does "this" refer to?)

NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it. (What does "it" refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)

موضوع: رد: Rules In English الأربعاء مايو 23, 2007 11:16 am

Pronoun Case

Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases.

1. Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.
2. Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.
3. Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.

Rules In English 54032847wh3

The pronouns THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE, and WHICH do not change form.

Some problems of case:
1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want.
NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal.
(Would you say, "me travel"?)

NOT: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.
(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)

NOT: Us men like the coach.
(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)

2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:
He is taller than I (am tall).

This helps you as much as (it helps) me.

She is as noisy as I (am).

Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences above. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choose the correct case for the pronoun.
NOT: He is taller than me.
(Would you say, "than me am tall"?)

3. In formal and semiformal writing:
Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.
FORMAL: It is I.
INFORMAL: It is me.

Use whom in the objective case.
FORMAL: To whom am I talking?
INFORMAL: Who am I talking to?